Challenging the Religious Patriarchy

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The book, Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women’s Liberation, by Mary Daly. Published in 1973.

In 1973, Mary Daly, an American radical feminist theologian, philosopher and ethicist (Stefon), released Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women’s Liberation. Because of Daly’s radical approach, many women rejected her ideas while accepting them as new spiritual ideas. In this book, Mary Daly challenges the Christian doctrine and suggests that Christianity has manifested itself as a symbol for the patriarchy and an enabler of misogyny. Daly’s radicalism prompts her to outright reject Judeo-Christian, Roman Catholic and Protestant religions. Her critiques of these traditional religions lead into her argument that women’s religiosity and spirituality must come from within oneself and not be dependent on a male figure. In her book, she argues that “the women’s revolution, insofar as it is true to its own essential dynamics, is an ontological, spiritual revolution, pointing beyond the idolatries of sexist society and sparking creative action in and toward transcendence” (Daly 6). She emphasizes that “the liberation of language is rooted in the liberation of ourselves” (Daly 8). Creating spaces that help women become comfortable with expressing themselves results in the societal and spiritual liberation of women. It breaks the chains of the patriarchy and allows for women to recognize their own sense of power and participate in new theologies and philosophies. Not only does Daly believe that women’s literary works are a form of liberation, but she views the women’s movement as a form of “cosmic covenant” that may transform sexist society as she draws similarities between prophets and women in the movement. She affirms that, “…prophets have been persons who do not receive their mission from any human agency, but seize it. The revolution of women has this kind of dynamic…what we are ‘seizing’ and ‘usurping’ is that which is rightfully and ontologically ours – our own identity that was robbed from us and the power to externalize this in a new naming reality” (Daly 164). The Women’s Liberation Movement offered opportunities that allowed women to reclaim their feminine identities and redefine their realities through different spiritual and religious beliefs. 

 

 Among the critiques of this book, Audre Lorde published a letter to Mary Daly expressing how the book has been “strengthening and helpful” (Lorde) to her in her perception of Eurocentric religions. Carol Anne Douglas also provided her opinion on Daly’s book in the second issue of the fourth volume of Off Our Backs. She summarizes Daly’s arguments and provides her own opinion on Daly’s radical views on the women’s movement as a form of female transcendence. As a feminist writer, Douglas’s critiques Daly’s argument by addressing that “One problem with Daly’s perception of feminism as a religious revelation is that  feels it must have a message for men some day too; separatism can only be a temporary means of self-strengthening (even if it is a necessary temporary step) rather than a goal” (Douglas). This critique implies that Douglas must want the message to only be available to women as it can create a form of feminine power that rejects any traces of men who may abuse this power. She  agrees with and praises Daly’s perspectives on the women’s movement and regards her philosophies “cogent and exciting.” Which in turn provides the audience of Off Our Backs an opportunity to understand Daly’s points and internalize these arguments to redefine their relationship with religion as feminists. 

Within this same issue of Off Our Backs, Mary Beth Edelson depicts different women who have contributed to the women’s movement through art like Louise Bourgeois, Lee Krasner and Georgia O’Keeffe in a picture of the Last Supper by Leonardo Davinci. By replacing the faces of Jesus and his disciples with the faces of women, Edelson

A picture created by Mary Beth Edelson as it appears in the second issue of the fourth volume of Off Our Backs.

displays the transformation of religion that Mary Daly advocated for in Beyond God The Father. The redefinition of religion encouraged women to interpret religious texts under the lens of feminism as well as stray away from male-centered religions and prioritize women as equal human beings. 

By outwardly rejecting the Christian doctrine, Daly helps women realize that by reconstructing religion to prioritize their identities and fit their wants and needs the women’s movement is further empowered. The radical viewpoints that Mary Daly makes in her book creates a new perception of the women’s movement as a religious revelation that is spearheaded by women’s literary and creative works. The shift towards female spirituality and religiosity revitalizes the power of women and transcends male-centered religions.

 

 

Sources:

Daly, Mary. Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women’s Liberation. United States, Beacon Press, 1985. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Beyond_God_the_Father/tswJvbG9mAQC?hl=en&gbpv

Fannie Lou Hamer, et al.  Off Our Backs, vol. 4, no. 2, Jan. 1974, pp. 1–20, https://jstor.org/stable/community.28041805. 

Lorde, Audre. “An Open Letter to Mary Daly: Audre Lorde (1979).” History Is a Weapon, https://www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/lordeopenlettertomarydaly.html. 

Goddess Spirituality

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In 1978, Heresies, a radical feminist publication, released a special edition issue that examined the idea of Goddess spirituality through a culmination of different literary works as well as depictions of female goddesses around the world. This issue was titled The Great Goddess, as it expresses the importance of female spirituality and the beliefs in female goddesses. In The Three Faces of Goddess Spirituality Merlin Stone outlines three different emerging aspects of Goddess Spirituality: the interest in the history of ancient cultures that praised female deities, the growing concern of feminist theology and spirituality and the concern for how male-centered religions have institutionalized the secondary status of women (Stone 2-3). By outlining these

5th Issue of Heresies, 1978

aspects, Stone clearly emphasizes the importance of Goddess spirituality. She explains that, “Goddess spirituality offers us the immediate and inherent refutation of institutionalized ‘religious’ values that have far too long been used as weapons of oppression” (Stone 4). In other words, the value of Goddess spirituality offers women a form of rejection of traditional religious values that have been the root of their oppression. Later in the article, Stone makes a similar point to Mary Daly as she asserts that, “Goddess spirituality has grown from our continually feeling, speaking, comparing, analyzing, feminist-consciousness raising process – the very core of our new perceptions and thus motivating energies” (Stone 4). The idea of Goddess spirituality and the rejection of male-centered religions derives from women feeling empowered to express their sentiments in a multitude of ways. This same argument is expressed by Carol P. Christ in Why Women Need the Goddess as she states, “This new mood of affirmation of female power leads to new motivations; it supports and undergirds women’s trust in their own power and the power of other women in family and society” (Christ).

An important poem that is included is “Mother With the Moon in Your Mouth” by Alla Bozarth Campbell. The poem describes the goddess, Ishtar. Ishtar is “a primary Mesopotamian goddess closely associated with love and war” (Pryke). Ishtar is an important deity as she was also the first deity to ever be recorded and “had a significant impact on the images and cults of many later goddesses, including the famous Greek goddess of love, Aphrodite, and other well-known goddesses such as Astarte” (Pryke). The poem’s stanzas are composed of vivid descriptions of Ishtar as

The poem, “Mother With the Moon in Your Mouth,” by Alla Bozarth Campbell as it appears on Heresies.

well as the narrator begging Ishtar to empower them as the “Goddess of Underneath.” The poem says, “…teach me the old ways/put me to sleep with/the old magic/make stars rise/on my breasts/like silver women/dancing naked/encircled by night/by a legion of wings” (Campbell). This stanza reveals the narrator begging Ishtar for security and faith. It reads like a prayer to Ishtar while maintaining the effectiveness and form of a poem. The end of the poem exclaims, “Moon Mother and Maiden, Awake!” (Campbell). This quote could reflect the meaning of the narrator’s inner Goddess and female power awakening within them. By forming a prayer to Ishtar, the poet is emphasizing the importance and empowerment of acknowledging and praising female deities.

Goddess spirituality served as a way for women to reject traditional religions and reconstruct their femininity and autonomy through the lens of spirituality. Goddesses and women alike used their bodies as forms of expression and art through natural human processes. Goddess spirituality was not an escape for women, instead it was a way for women to look for hope in liberation. It encouraged women to look beyond the constraints of traditional religious values and develop ways to appreciate their female identity through spirituality. 

 

 

Sources: 

Campbell, Bozarth Alla. “Mother With the Moon in Your Mouth.” Heresies A Feminist Publication on Arts & Politics, vol. 2, no. 1 (5), Heresies Collective, Apr. 1978, pp. 1–140, https://jstor.org/stable/community.28038304.

Pryke, Louise. “Ishtar.” World History Encyclopedia, World History Encyclopedia, 5 Dec. 2021, https://www.worldhistory.org/ishtar/. 

Stone, Merlin. “The Three Faces of Goddess Spirituality.” Heresies: A Feminist Publication on Arts & Politics, vol. 2, no. 1 (5), Heresies Collective, Apr. 1978, pp. 1–140, https://jstor.org/stable/community.28038304.

Women of Color and Native Spirituality

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Women of Color and Native Spirituality 

For women of color, the hardship of navigating through society was doubled as they suffered from oppressive systems that rejected their identities as women and people of color. As traditional religions like Roman Catholicism and Christianity were used to colonize many countries, feminists who were women of color came to the realization that praising these religions meant praising the very same systems that continue to oppress them. Understanding religion and spirituality and being able to express it as a woman of color resulted in the reversion to many Native forms of religiosity and spirituality. Many indigenous and African religious traditions were revived as women found comfort in the female goddesses that many of these religions praised. 

Jayne Cortez was an Afro-Latina poet and musician who expressed her stance on racism and misogyny through her poetry, music and contributions to the women’s movement through her experiences as a woman of color. In her poem, “Do You Think?” Cortez talks about different issues that affect women of color through different literary techniques like imagery and repetition. She addresses how racism, colonialism, and misogyny affect the way that women of color navigate their identities within society. She establishes the importance of her Latinx identity by using words like “chorizo” and

The poem, Do You Think?, by Jayne Cortez. This poem discusses the hardships of women of color as a result of racism, misogyny and colonialism.

“cuchifritos.” In the poem, Cortez asserts “And my chorizo face a holiday for knives/and my arching lips a savannah for cuchifritos/ and my spit curls a symbol for you to/ overcharge overbill oversell me” (Cortez 57).  By evidently depicting a woman of color with distinct physical features, Cortez alludes to the fact that being a woman of color is not justification for her to have to submit to the oppressive systems that neglect her identities. Later in the poem Cortez says, “you think i accept this pentecostal church in exchange for the lands you stole” (Cortez 57). Pentecostalism is a common religion among Latinx religions even though it was forcefully imposed on indigenous and African slave communities to erase their native beliefs. Eventually, Pentecostalism was used to subordinate people of color and subjected women to the control of men for centuries. Cortez’s rejection of Pentecostalism is significant because it displays to the reader that because of her identity, practicing institutionalized religion is difficult because of its misogynistic and racist roots. 

The poem, “From the House of Yemanjá,” by Audre Lorde also does not shy away from accepting native religion. This poem was released in 1978 in The Black Unicorn along with other poems that explored the themes of womanhood, family life and spirituality. The name Yemanjá refers to the “Yoruban deity celebrated as the giver of life and as the metaphysical mother of all orishas (deities) within the Yoruba spiritual pantheon” (Canson).  This specific poem examines the relationship that the narrator has to their mother. The first stanza describes the narrator’s mother to have two faces. The narrator says, 

“My mother had two faces and a frying pot

where she cooked up her daughters

into girls

before she fixed out dinner.

My mother had two faces and a broken pot

where she hid out a perfect daughter

who was not me” (Lorde). 

The poem, “From the House of Yemanjá,” by Audre Lorde as it appears in The Black Unicorn.

This stanza establishes the poem as the narrator’s yearning for a motherly figure who accepted them as who they were. The second stanza describes the narrator having two women on their back “one dark and rich and hidden/ in the ivory hungers of the other” (Lorde). The duality of the two women introduced depict the two faces of the mother. They depict the two sides of the narrator’s mother as these women taunt and take care of the narrator. The poem ends with the repetition of “Mother I need” signifying the narrator begging their mother for their comforting touch and presence. As Yemanjá is the mother of all, this poem could be interpreted to be the narrator asking for a form of Yemanjá to appear before them and offer support and acceptance. 

 

 

 

Sources: 

Canson, Patricia. “Yemonja.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 August 2014, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yemonja

Cortez, Jayne. “Do You Think?” Heresies, vol. 1, no. 1, 1977, p. 125.

Lorde, Audre. The Black Unicorn. 1st ed., Norton, 1978.

“Functions of the Family” by Linda Gordon

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Published in Women: A Journal of Liberation, Linda Gordon breaks down the nuclear family dynamics into nine main points. Through the exploration of the nuclear family structure, Gordon brings insight into the reasons women are seeking liberation from the confinement of the family during the Second Wave Feminist Movement.
One issue Gordon critiques is the social framework the family is built on: a working husband and a woman and her children at home. Gordon shares that this framework “keeps women and children isolated” (Gordon, 20). The nuclear family allows for only the husband to be free while isolating the mother and children from society. Women are boxed in their homes and are expected to maintain all household duties. Patriarchal society deems women essential to the home, yet holds no real respect for their hard work. Gordon reveals why many women during the Second Wave Feminist Movement sought liberation from a confining homelife.

Barb Hayes draws the stages of a woman’s life. The iron symbolizes a working woman, the ring symbolizes marriage, and then there is an outline of a family.

Gordon also sheds light on the repression of women’s sexuality and sexual expression. Gordon states that “women in families are trained to see themselves primarily as mothers and reproducers, not as enjoyers of sex” (Gordon, 20). Gordon exposes how before starting a family, women are only viewed as sexual objects by men. After a woman settles in with a man, she is no longer supposed to engage in any form of sexual expression or activities unless it is for reproduction. The nuclear family structure restricts all forms of sexual expression and defines women as mothers. Gordon’s solution to sexual repression can only be reached through “collective effort,” which the Second Wave Feminist Movement helps to promote (Gordon, 21).

Jacqui Linard illustrates a woman sitting by her windowsill. The woman has a contemplating face while she stares out the window.

Gordon continues to critique how the structure of the family creates a sense of “fulfillment” in gender roles. Gordon uses the role of a mother to prove the point that “a mother is forced to think of herself as ‘mother’ and to approach the whole world as ‘mother’” (Gordon, 22). Women are directly associated with motherhood and are expected to represent themselves as mothers: loving, nurturing, and selfless. Fighting for liberation will provide women with a new definition for themselves–– one that reflects their individuality. Breaking these roles will end conformity and promote individualism among all women in society.

Gordon ends her essay by proposing that the nuclear family must be destroyed. Falling victim to a nuclear family framework will only support the expectations and roles society has placed upon women. Therefore women need to encourage other women to take the initiative of creating a new family unit where inclusion and needs of women are prioritized.

 

Works Cited:

Gordon, Linda. “Functions Of The Family.” Women: A Journal for Liberation, vol. 1, no.2, pp 20- 24.

Hayes, Barb. “Untitled.” Women: A Journal for Liberation, vol. 7, no.2, pp 59.

Linard, Jacqui. “Untitled.” Women: A Journal for Liberation, vol. 4, no.3, pp 38.

Women: A Journal for Liberation, vol. 1, no.2, Winter 1970.

Women: A Journal for Liberation, vol. 4, no.3, Spring 1973.

Women: A Journal for Liberation, vol. 7, no.2, Winter 1976.

The Health Care System’s Control of the Reproductive Process: A Look at Doctors’ Control of Birth Control Information

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Alice Wolfson’s “Health Care May Be Hazardous to Your Health” was published in the inaugural, June 1970 issue of Up From Under. In this essay, Wolfson critiques the health care system, while also educating women about their various birth control options.

During Second-Wave Feminism, women desired control over their own reproductive process. Consequently, Up From Under’s inaugural issue, published in 1970, features essays that challenge the healthcare system’s conversations about birth control. For example, in one of the essays titled “Health Care May Be Hazardous to Your Health,” author Alice Wolfson describes the healthcare system’s exploitation of women who use birth control pills. The FDA approved birth control pills for nationwide use on May 9, 1960 (History.com Editors). At the time of the FDA’s approval, however, the pill’s side-effects were not fully known. Wolfson warns women about their potential exploitation as guinea pigs. As she writes, “8.5 million American women taking the Pill [were] participating in the largest experiment ever conducted” (Wolfson 8). Wolfson, a pioneer of the women’s health movement, played a pivotal role in Congressional hearings that upended the healthcare system’s deceit about birth control. The hearings began in 1970 when U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson challenged the pharmaceutical industry after reading Barbra Seaman’s book titled The Doctor’s Case Against the Pill (“Senate Hearings on the Pill”). Seaman’s book details the safety hazards of taking “the Pill” through testimonials from physicians, medical researchers, and women who had used oral contraceptives. After witnessing the hearings, Wolfson wrote “Health Care May Be Hazardous to Your Health,” as she felt that although “the Pill hearings in Congress revealed shocking facts about the dubious safety of these drugs,” many women remained uninformed by their doctors (Wolfson 8). Here, she highlights that the system retained control by withholding information from patients. Additionally, in her critique of the healthcare system, Wolfson underlines doctors’ control over abortions, further highlighting women’s lack of control over their own reproductive health. Prior to Roe v Wade (1973), abortions were illegal. In an exaggerated statistic, Wolfson explains the implications of abortion’s criminalization. She proclaims “if the D.C. General had performed the service the women wanted, there would have been 4,000 abortions [of the 5,000 babies delivered in 1968] instead of the seven actually completed” (Wolfson 9). Although Wolfson may exaggerate the number of abortions, a 1965 study conducted by the Planned Parenthood Federation of America suggests that in their sample of 889 women, a total of 74 women “said that they attempted to abort one or more pregnancies; of these, 31 reported the attempt successful” (Polgar 125). Women were consistently denied abortions. Yet, not only did society deny women abortions, they, also, did not provide adequate access to information about contraceptives. Without information, knowledge, or access to their options, mothers and women alike remained at the mercy of a flawed system.

Sources:

Albert, Marilyn, et al., editors. Up From Under, vol. 1, no. 1, 1970, pp. 1–57.

Wolfson, Alice. “Giving Birth in Dignity .” Up From Under , vol. 1, no. 1, 1970, pp. 6-10.

“Senate Hearings on the Pill.” PBS, WGBH Educational Foundation, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/pill-senate-holds-hearings-pill-1970/.

History.com Editors. “FDA Approves ‘The Pill.’” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 9 Feb. 2010, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/fda-approves-the-pill.

Polgar, Steven, and Ellen S Fried. “The Bad Old Days: Clandestine Abortions Among the Poor in New York City Before Liberalization of the Abortion Law.” Family Planning Perspectives, vol. 8, no. 3, 1976, pp. 125–127.

 

 

“Belinda Berkeley” by Irina

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“Belinda Berkeley” by Irina, a political comic strip published in It Ain’t Me Babe, illustrates the irony of a husband critiquing the Second Wave Feminist Movement. It Ain’t Me Babe is a radical feminist newspaper created the Berkeley Women’s Liberation in Berkeley, California in 1970. This cartoon focuses on the partner dynamics of a stay-at-home novelist husband and a wife who is an active member of the movement.

“Belinda Berkeley” by Irina is a political comic strip illustrating the partner dynamics during the Second Wave Feminist Movement.

The first two panels illustrate Buzz’s annoyance at Belinda for not taking care of the household duties before leaving for her women’s liberation meeting. Buzz says with frustration, “She could at least have cooked dinner for me!” (Irina 20). This criticism from Buzz demonstrates how men diminished the women’s mission for liberation during the Second Wave Feminist Movement. Men expected women to prioritize the nuclear family and its duties before taking care of themselves, confining women to the role of a housewife. The next two panels reveal the irony behind Buzz’s irritation when he says, “Sure some men are male chauvinists, but I’m not like that!” Buzz continues to say “I mean, sure I agree, with their aims, but it’s the methods they use! So strident, so militant, so-so unfeminine!” (Irina 20). Buzz claims he is not a chauvinist but undermines women’s methods for their liberation. Like Buzz, many men believed the radical feminists participating in the movement were masculine, opposite of what women should present themselves as. Buzz conforms to the social stigma that women are supposed to be feminine by describing the methods as “so-so unfeminine”; yet he still claims he is not a chauvinist.

Published in the same newspaper, Jennifer illustrates many morphed faces of women with the caption “Free our sisters; Free ourselves.” Many women sought liberation from their controlling spouses and found solidarity with other women during the movement.

Buzz continues to express his misogynistic views through slurs and rude remarks, claiming women participating in the movement are a “bunch of dykes in boots and sweatshirts” and “old maids who can’t get a man anyway!” (Irina 20). Buzz resorts to a misogynistic attack as a response to his threatened masculinity. Calling women “dykes” fuels his frail masculine image and creates a superior complex against women. The hint of a homophobic tone demonstrates how Buzz is afraid that Belinda will join these “dykes” and “old maids” in challenging the confining nuclear family and the restricting society.

The cartoon ends with Belinda coming home and noticing the irritation on Buzz’s face. Belinda immediately asks Buzz if something is wrong as Buzz sits on a couch with droopy eyes and shrugged shoulders ignoring her. The ending line of the cartoon states, “Or maybe gang, this time it’s something Buzz is being forced to swallow?” (Irina 20). Buzz’s hypocrisy and misogynistic views are being challenged by his own wife. He is being forced to swallow his masculine insecurity and forced to acknowledge the momentum and power the feminist movement gave women.

 

Works Cited:

Irina. “Belinda Berkeley.” It Ain’t Me Babe, vol. 1, no. 9, pp 20.

It Ain’t Me Babe, vol. 1, no. 9, July 2-23 1970.

Jennifer. “Untitled.” It Ain’t Me Babe, vol. 1, no. 9, pp 19.

“The Complete Mother Unit”: A Look at Society’s Expectations for Mothers

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Abby Waddell’s untitled poem was published in Up From Under’s September 1970 issue. This poem describes a woman’s inner self-image, which contrasts that of society and her own children’s image of her.

During the Women’s Liberation Movement, women sought to reclaim their identity beyond their socially-defined role. Before the movement, women were primed to be perfect, ideal mothers. In the editorial statement of Up From Under’s September 1970 issue, the editors explain “childhood and adolescence for a girl is very much a period of training in the basic skills for the job of wife and mother. We are apprentices to our mothers. We learn, willingly or unwillingly, sooner or later, to cook, iron, shop, sew, wash dishes, floors, and clothes and take care of children” (Albert et al.2). Generations of women’s experiences with society’s institutions and expectations have molded this seemingly inescapable model of motherhood. In the September 1970 issue, the editors feature Abby Waddell’s untitled poem, which satirizes society’s model of a perfected motherhood. Waddell describes:

I, myself, was walking
double jointed, head
a balloon with a string tied to shoulders …
And my children the darlings, Who did they see?
All in one piece, the complete mother unit,
Familiar old model, a toasted cheese sandwich,
efficient their mother,
Me (Waddell 48)

Here, Waddell highlights the complexity of motherhood: while outwardly the mother conforms to societal expectations, inwardly she feels completely different. As a mother, she has a duty she is expected to fulfill. According to society’s definition, mothers must efficiently raise the next generation of workers. Because of an expectation for their mother’s efficiency and perfection, children see their mothers “all in one piece, the complete mother unit, familiar old model.” Mothers portray this perfected version of motherhood. As a consequence of this portrayal, they must limit their own personality, which they may never have the opportunity to express. A woman’s children inevitably become her identity. However, through the speaker’s inner thoughts, Waddell recognizes the identity of many women beyond their societally-defined title. Therefore, Waddell and other feminist poets strive to remind women that they are more than mothers. These poets invigorate women to develop beyond their title of mother and explore more freedoms. They argue women can have children, raise them, and enjoy them, but they can also simultaneously develop themselves.

Sources:

Albert, Marilyn, et al., editors. Up From Under, vol. 1, no. 2, 1970, pp. 1–69.

Waddell, Abby. “Untitled.” Up From Under, vol. 1, no. 2, 1970, pp. 48-48.

“I Never Asked to Be a Slave”: A Look at Mothers’ Sacrifices

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Published in Up From Under‘s February 1971 issue, Robin Morgan’s “The 2 A.M. Feeding” highlights a mother’s struggle with a newborn child. In this poem, Morgan describes the heterosexual socially-defined roles that constrain women.

During Second-Wave Feminism, feminists, especially feminist poets, questioned familial responsibilities defined by heterosexual roles. Prior to the Women’s Liberation Movement, society restructured the family unit to meet its capitalistic needs, making the sphere of domesticity inescapable. In the editorial statement of Up From Under’s February 1971 issue, the editors discuss these capitalistically-defined family roles that the movement hopes to change. As the editors describe “a man must meet the society’s need for a worker, which leaves him little time or energy to meet the emotional needs of a woman or children. The women’s role is to meet the man’s needs and the children’s needs” (Albert et al.4). The woman must come home to perform laborious house work and support her husband and children. On the other hand, her husband is expected to provide the financial support for his family, leaving him no time to nurture his children and support his wife. In the February 1971 issue, the editors feature Robin Morgan’s “The 2 A.M. Feeding,” which analyzes the implications of these roles. Opening the poem, the speaker bemoans “you never asked to be a master and, God knows…that I never asked to be a slave” (Morgan 36). Here, she addresses her husband as she describes the consequences of their societally-defined role. Even though her husband did not define the roles himself, he still remains in control. The speaker lives at the mercy of her husband and children’s desires. She bewails, “I need to sleep. I never asked for this; you never asked. Our twenty-five inch son whimpers in the night and my breasts hurt until I wake myself and feed him” (Morgan 36). A mother must prioritize the needs of her children in the way a father does not need to prioritize them. She has responsibilities that her husband cannot help her with, but these responsibilities are considered her duty and go unrecognized. Without a mother’s sacrifices society would not exist, yet society refused to recognize them in any tangible manner.

Sources:

Albert, Marilyn, et al., editors. Up From Under, vol. 1, no. 3, 1971, pp. 1–69.

Morgan , Robin. “‘The 2 A.M. Feeding.’” Up From Under, vol. 1, no. 3, ser. 1, 1 Feb. 1971, pp. 36–36.

“Children of my own to be fed”: A Look at Working Mothers’ Responsibilities

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Published in the February 1971 issue of Up From Under, Rhoda Gaye Ascher’s “Friday Night Program” establishes the struggles of a working mother. This poem highlights a mother’s state of exhaustion because of societal expectations.

The poets of the Women’s Liberation Movement unify readers through their candid recounts of their shared experiences as both a mother and a worker. In Up From Under’s second issue’s editorial statement, published in September 1970, the editors describe the struggles of women, who are mothers and workers. They state “if a woman works outside the home because of economic need she is forced to have two full-time jobs, as she still must fulfill her primary function as housewife and mother” (Albert et al. 2). In the February 1971 issue of Up From Under, the editor featured Rhoda Gaye Ascher’s poem titled “Friday Night Song,” which explores this burden. The speaker details a mother and wife’s labor following her own full day of work. She considers:

Kitchen on my own to be scrubbed so white
Children of my own to be fed
Man of my own waitin’ for me tonight
So much to say. (Ascher 24)

Ascher emphasizes that many women work full time jobs to support their family; however, unlike their husbands, they do not have the privilege of relaxation when returning home. Instead, women, particularly mothers, are expected to clean and maintain the house while also raising the children. In this piece, Ascher highlights that she must do all her household work “on my own…with my weary, weary feet” (Ascher 24). Here, she underlines her exhaustion, which her state of constant service perpetuates. Even though she returns home for the weekend, the only reprieve she receives is from her societally-approved job. Society treated motherhood and housework as women’s obligatory duties. They did not value the dedication required to raise a child and tend to a family’s needs. Yet, feminist poets, like Ascher, strive to overcome society’s failures. In their poetry, they endow recognition of a mother’s hard work. Therefore, readers, many of whom are mothers, feel heard and understood. Up From Under unites the readers, invigorating them to upend society’s disregard for mothers’ arduous experiences.

Sources:

Albert, Marilyn, et al., editors. Up From Under, vol. 1, no. 2, 1970, pp. 1–69.

Ascher, Rhoda Gaye. “Friday Night Song.” Up From Under , vol. 1, no. 3, 1971, pp. 24.

Lavender Menace and the History of Lesbian Censorship

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There is a long history of lesbian censorship and demonization in America, which is apparent through the reception and representation of queer stories in media. For example, ONE Magazine, which was known as the “first national, legally sanctioned organization dedicated to the promulgation of information on homosexuality,” had one of its earliest issues banned due to obscenity laws (4). The October 1954 publication of ONE magazine was withheld by the post office for including a short story called “Sappho Remembered”– an emotional portrayal of a woman reflecting on her identity. The most “sexual” act is a kiss, and yet the story rendered the issue as unfit for distribution. Although this ban was eventually reversed, it demonstrates publishers’ hesitation to acknowledge queer –and especially lesbian– relationships in mainstream media. 

Cover of ONE magazine: strong diagonal emphasis and bold lettering create a minimalistic cover

The October 1954 issue of ONE magazine (left), which was banned due to obscenity laws, is pictured next to an article titled “Victory for ONE” (right). The article announces the reversal of the post office ban and concludes that ONE had falsely been categorized as obscene and confiscated by the federal post office.

Mainstream media saw lesbians as a threat because they digressed from traditional heterosexual relationships and power systems. Tensions between lesbian feminists and their straight counterparts came to a boiling point at the Second Congress to Unite Women on May 1, 1970, which was held by the National Organization for Women (NOW). Although the term feminism became increasingly intersectional throughout the Second Wave Feminist Movement, the strong majority of speakers at the congress were middle class, straight, white women. Additionally, the First Congress to Unite Women, which was a year earlier, excluded prominent lesbian organizations, such as the Daughters of Bilitis. The co-founder of NOW, Betty Friedan, prompted a radical lesbian protest when she categorized lesbian feminists as a “lavender menace” in a speech (3). This term suggested that including lesbians in the feminist movement would subvert the authority of men since lesbians were often stereotyped as “man-hating” by their prejudiced straight counterparts. Lesbians played an essential role in the Second Wave Feminist Movement, so discounting their voices diminished their existence as well as their aid to the feminist movement.

Lavender as a color was often associated with queer people, and has a deeper history than even the rainbow pride flag, which was designed in 1978. Some of the earliest references to purple correlating with queerness date back to Sappho’s poem fragments (1). However, it wasn’t until the late 1960s and early 1970s that lavender became seen as a symbol of gay empowerment. Purple fabric and clothing was used in the 1969 “gay power” march as well as the “Lavender Menace Rebellion.” After Friedan’s speech, radical lesbian feminists (or the radicalesbians) reclaimed the term “Lavender Menace.”  The “Lavender Menaces” protested the Second Congress to Unite Women by wearing hand-dyed shirts and wielding hand-made signs proudly declaring themselves lesbians and self-associating with the color lavender. The women also took over the stage and microphones at the Second Congress to Unite Women and called out the prejudice and silencing being forced upon them within the feminist movement (3). This peaceful protest and demonstration of pride helped to ignite a radical lesbian movement and redefine feminism and the voices at the forefront of the movement.

Three women smile during protest and hold signs

Photograph from May 1, 1970 by Diana Davies depicting three women (Lita Lepie, Judy Cartisano, and Arlene Kisner) holding signs that say “THE WOMEN’S MOVEMENT IS A LESBIAN PLOT” and wearing shirts that read “LAVENDER MENACE.”

A light purple shirt reads "Lavender Menace"

Hand-dyed Lavender Menace shirt worn in 1970, courtesy of the Lesbian Herstory Archives.

On May 1, 1970, the day of the Second Congress to Unite Women, the protesters also distributed a lesbian manifesto titled “The Woman Identified Woman.” The four-page manifesto was one of the most important documents in the creation of lesbian feminism. “The Woman Identified Woman” acknowleged the isolation that many queer women felt, and created a sense of unity while also making space for queer voices within politics and feminism. Additionally, the manifesto argued that lesbians are an extremely valuable asset to the feminist movement because they embody one of the core values of feminism — they are not defined or controlled by a male partner (5). In this sense, lesbians were seen as the “ultimate feminist.” “The Woman Identified Woman” also pinpointed the male gaze and patriarchy as the root of homophobia. The manifesto argued that when straight women find out that a woman is lesbian, then they fear that they will be viewed as a sex object because they have been conditioned by men to place themselves in that role: 

[…] when a straight woman learns that a sister is a lesbian; she begins to relate to her lesbian sister as her potential sex object, laying a surrogate male role on the lesbian. This reveals her heterosexual conditioning to make herself into an object when sex is potentially involved in a relationship, and it denies the lesbian her full humanity. For women, especially those in the movement, to perceive their lesbian sisters through this male grid of role definitions is to accept this male cultural conditioning and to oppress their sisters much as they themselves have been oppressed by men. (The Woman Identified Woman, 1)

A piece of paper that is yellow with age reads "The Woman Identified Woman" over small text

The Woman Identified Woman was a lesbian manifesto written by the Radicalesbians, and distributed on May 1, 1970 during the Second Congress to Unite Women.

The Woman Identified Woman was a major turning point for lesbian feminism and lesbian representation in media. In the subsequent years, many publications included a variety of lesbian media in an attempt to break down the mainstream censorship and façade that alienated queer women. On Page 16 of the first publication of Amazon Quarterly, a lesbian feminist literary magazine, they wrote: “Lesbian Woman has a message. The message is that Lesbians are people. This news will come as no surprise to the readers of Amazon Quarterly, but it may to the straight reading public to whom much of the book is addressed,” (2). 

Material solely dedicated to creating space for oppressed groups was extremely valuable in helping to create a sense of unity. However, even within some queer-centered publications the authors and contributors addressed heterosexual society. The “straight reading public” was encouraged to read Amazon Quarterly by its publishers in the hope of breaking down biased preconceived notions and prejudices. A lesbian feminist literary magazine such as Amazon Quarterly would have portayed lesbians and queer relationships in a much more holistic and thoughtful manner compared to the messages mainstream media, which is why lesbian publications had the power to expand heterosexual perspectives on queer love.

 

Work Cited

(1) Hastings, Christobel. “How Lavender Became a Symbol of LGBTQ Resistance.” CNN, Cable News Network, 4 June 2020, https://www.cnn.com/style/article/lgbtq-lavender-symbolism-pride/index.html. 

(2) Laurel, et al. “Amazon Quarterly.” Amazon Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 2, Amazon Press, Dec. 1973, pp. 1–76, https://jstor.org/stable/community.28032325.

(3) “Lavender Menace Action at Second Congress to Unite Women.” NYC LGBT Historic Sites Project, https://www.nyclgbtsites.org/site/lavender-menace-action-at-second-congress-to-unite-women/. 

(4) “One Magazine.” ONE Magazine | ONE Archives, 1 Jan. 1970, https://one.usc.edu/archive-location/one-magazine. 

(5) “The Woman-Identified Woman / Women’s Liberation Movement Print Culture / Duke Digital Repository.” Duke Digital Collections, https://repository.duke.edu/dc/wlmpc/wlmms01011.