What do Goths, Hipsters, Emos and Bikers have in common? Well, not much. Except that they are all subcultures that differ in more than one way – interests, behaviours, clothing or beliefs – from the mainstream lifestyle. That said, formulating a precise, useable definition for subculture has proved difficult for academics: for instance, author Gottlieb (1965) notes, “while we are willing to accept the notion of adolescent subculture, we are not really clear as to just how and where it departs from the total or more universal culture”. We share an understanding that subcultures deviate from the mainstream universal, but very few people stop to think about how they manage to do so. Despite the absence of an objective definition for subculture, there is general agreement that a subculture should possess uniquely accentuated values and norms, that go against the mainstream of society (Sebald, 1975). I shall focus my discussion of subcultures as:
“relatively diffuse social network having a shared identity, distinctive meanings around certain ideas, practices, and objects, and a sense of marginalization from or resistance to a perceived “conventional society.” (Haenfler, 2013).
Guided by the definition outlined by Haenfler, I argue that existentialism, which is normally seen as simply a philosophy of life, should actually be seen as a subcultural phenomenon. The difference between the two being that a philosophy of life affects the way you view the world, but a subcultural phenomenon affects the way you view the world, interact with the world on a daily basis, and in turn, the way that the world views you.
We’ve all heard the phrase ‘I’m having an existential crisis!’ thrown about in hyperbolic speech. As once famously stated, “I took a test in Existentialism. I left all the answers blank and got 100.” (Woody Allen) It is a common misconception that existentialism is about finding meaning in things that have no meaning. But what does existentialism actually entail? The word stems from the Latin existentialis and relates to the movement that aims to redefine humans as autonomous individuals who have free choice. Although the term ‘existentialism’ hadn’t been coined yet, people look back to the 1800s for the movement’s precursors: Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, and Heidegger. The movement gained momentum after World War II, when survivors questioned the meaning and purpose in their lives (Reynolds, 2014). Dr. J. Reynolds (2014), a researcher of 19th-century American literature, describes existentialism as a solution to an individual’s anxiety in finding themselves lost in a world which seems meaningless. He draws attention to the fact that existentialists should be active (and not passive) agents in approaching aspects of their life, be it religion, politics, literature, or art. And do so without mimicking others. They are therefore encouraged to explore unique expressions in a manner that promotes self-advancement, and they perform their self-exploration through a shared subculture.
To justify the claim that existentialism is a subculture, I must first prove that its members constitute a “diffuse social network” (Haenfler, 2013). The word ‘network’ means a group of interconnected people. And ‘group’, according to Merriam-Webster Dictionary is ‘a number of individuals assembled together or having some unifying relationship’. Therefore, subcultures are formed and sustained through patterns of experience and connections between people interacting; and existentialists fit this definition. In post-war Paris, on the Left Bank, students and groups of intellectuals – headed by philosopher Sartre and writers Simone de Beauvoir and Camus – would congregate and share ideas. These were existentialists; filling cafés such as Café des Deux Maggots, Le Tabou and La Rose Rouge around Saint-Germain-des-Pres. In these cafes, clubs and bars, “jazz provided the soundtrack to the hard-living, free-loving lifestyle of the student followers of Sartre and his acolytes.” (Hussey, 2016) Intellectuals would share the music, hand-rolled cigarettes and discussions about their essence, personal angst, and what it means to be truly “free” (Hussey, 2016). Jean-Paul Sartre’s funeral in 1980 was attended by people all over the world and especially in France. Over 50,000 people congregated for the funeral, many of whom were no doubt existentialists mourning the death of a key figure in the existentialist movement (Reynold, 2014). So not only do they come together as a collective group to congregate physically, but also to share ideas and experiences as a group of existentialists.
This is where I must acknowledge a challenge in my argument: the fact is that existentialists themselves would dismiss an attempt to be categorised as all categorisations imply a lack of individuality and authenticity, the two tenants of the existentialist subculture. It is the prominence of individuality in the existentialist subculture that makes it difficult to readily label existentialism as a subculture. Why is this? Since existentialism is built on the exploration of the self, accepting a group label would rob members of their authenticity and freedom to go against the grain. But this reluctance to accept a loaded label is not uncommon within subcultures. For example, there are groups of goths, punks, and hipsters who put a strong premium on individuality, but do so en masse, and I argue that existentialists are no different.
Existentialists differ from the mainstream in the way they think and act; which falls in line with Haenfler’s definition of subculture, which states that they must have “distinctive meanings around certain ideas, practices.” ‘Ideas’ relates to the values and beliefs that the members of the subculture have in common, and ‘practices’ refers to the shared customs. Because existentialism is all about the self, its members are not expected to think in one particular way, they are just encouraged to aim their thinking towards two primary goals: authenticity and freedom. This subjectivity, because every being will have their own way of finding their true selves, allows for varied viewpoints and expressions. For example, contrary to popular opinion, existentialism and theism are not mutually exclusive. In fact, Kierkegaard was very religious himself. Some existentialists are convinced God exists, some are unsure, and others are sure that there is no God. But they all agree that we are all responsible for who we are and the choices we make. My point is, the existentialist views may be varied, but this variance is rooted in a shared practice of self-governance and free thinking. Haenfler (2013) actually emphasises that although members of a subculture follow the same ethos, “not at all does this mean that all adherents of a particular subculture share identical understandings of these things” (Haenfler, 2013). In the context of religion, British writer Anita Brookner posits, “Existentialism is about being a saint without God; being your own hero, without all the sanction and support of religion or society.” (“Existentialism”, 2017) Essentially, they do not care much for what precedes their own existence, because the truth only exists in the becoming of oneself. Most people who follow religion are led by a God or learn lessons and ‘facts’ about life from religion, but existentialists reject this dependence on a higher being to lead them. Existentialists are prescribed to neither religion, nor atheism; this deviance from conforming to a dominant religious institution follows the ethos of the subculture, and reflects what they are ultimately striving for: individuality. This same variance in beliefs can be seen through the lens of existentialists in politics. They strive for individual freedom; in whatever form this may take. Existentialists who find freedom in being part of a communist party, because it relieves the stress of sourcing food and shelter and allows one to focus on the self, pursue it. Most existentialists, however, would avoid oppressive politics and political jargon. They would choose self-governance over being ruled by society. Part of existentialism is becoming aware of the freedom to choose and the ability to create one’s own life, without succumbing to the external pressures of conformity. So, whatever their beliefs are, as long as the members are sharing ‘ideas’ and applying the same practices of thinking (rooted in individualism) to different domains of their life, they fulfill that criterion of a subculture.
Just as goths express themselves through dark art, and punks through punk music, existentialists have also expressed their beliefs through their art and literature. These ideas and this focus on individuality often led to dramatic self-expression and despair (Hacker, 1994). Existentialist values can be found in the literary works of Camus, Fyodor and Dostoyevsky. Since existentialism is about declaring one’s authenticity, members want to “avoid any appearance of building a system” (Golomb, 1995). In this case, a “system” being an education, political or social system. For example, in one of Camus’s most well-known works, The Stranger (1942), he talks about the character Meursault, who experiences everything from the perspective of an onlooker from the outside. Meursault gains a new viewpoint on his own life. In the book, he has no emotion; he doesn’t cry at his mother’s funeral, he rejects the idea of God, and aimlessly kills an innocent man. Of course, Camus is not suggesting that people should do this; that’s not the point of existentialism. The point is that he is showing that people shouldn’t be constrained by what is expected of them, based on the general consensus or society. As Golomb (1995) states, existentialist writers, such as Camus, hope to:
shatter our dogmatic beliefs and lure us into giving up blindly accepted ethical norms and ideologies. Only when we successfully shed these values that we have been conditioned to uphold by various institutions – our families, schools and universities – will we be able to reach beyond them to the genuine roots of our selves and ultimately attain authenticity.
The Stranger thus shows ethical deviance as a practice of existentialism to question the accepted, popular norms and ideologies of societies. Existentialist values can be further found in works of artists such as EM Escher. An admirer of Albert Camus, E. M. Escher spoke about his enigmatic and arresting sketch, Ascending and Descending Staircase, explained:
that staircase is a rather sad, pessimistic subject, as well as being very profound and absurd. With similar questions on his lips, our own Albert Camus has just smashed into a tree in his friend’s car and killed himself. An absurd death, which had rather an effect on me. (Poole, 2011).
Not only did Escher greatly admire one of the leaders of existentialism, but he also portrayed his existentialist perspective in his work, showing how existentialism is a lifestyle because artists are applying its practices to their work. His use of visual illusions and his portrayal of art from many perspectives conveyed his subjectivity in assessing situations and his life (McQuaid, 2014). One of his most famous works is a lithograph print of Escher himself holding a glass ball in an extended hand, staring at his reflection. In this example, Escher looks critically into his reflection – a visual representation of the value existentialists hold in introspection and on an emphasis on the self. Because art is such an interpretive and varied sector, it’s hard to say that existentialism defies the “norm.” Nonetheless, it is reasonable to suggest that existentialist art consistently reflects the values and beliefs held by its adherents.
Haenfler’s final criterion for a subculture is that it has “a sense of marginalization from or resistance to a perceived ‘conventional society.” Existentialists reject the larger culture of unquestioning conformity and, in turn, are a unified culture. One way they explicitly reject the culture is in their deviant dress style, through a tailored aesthetic. Dick Hebdige, a British sociologist, argues that;
style in subculture is…pregnant with significance. Its transformations go “against nature,’ interrupting the process of normalization. As such they are gestures, movements towards a speech which offends the silent majority, which challenges the principle of unity and cohesion, which contradicts the myth of consensus. (Dirke, 1997)
Subcultures must be distinguishable in the way their practitioners dress. For example, goths are identifiable by their use of dark clothing and makeup to set themselves apart. Existentialists also follow this criterion, be it in subtler ways. Originally, both men and known were known to wear plaid shirts and to sport long hair. Later they started wearing black – particularly in the form of turtlenecks – all members sticking to uni-sex clothing (Dirke, 1997). It is safe to presume that the emphasis on uni-sex clothing is to counter gender-expectations that were, and still are, rife in our society. It is speculated that the colour choice was a result of their preoccupation with death and angst of living. Their ‘uniform’ is exemplified by Juliette Greco, a well-known French actress who identified as an existentialist and would often wear black make-up and an all-black wardrobe (“Bitterness,”, 1970). As existentialism broke out in Paris, France, the dark clothing “broke the prescribed dress code” and “distinguish[ed] them from the nondescript majority culture,” (Dirke, 1997). Existentialists, even with their tailored aesthetics, opposed the social norms of the larger culture so as to further their search of finding the true meaning in their lives. So, while their unisex and black attire might have made them seem ‘deviant’ to an onlooker, their preoccupations and choice of dress were consistent with their own values and beliefs.
In sum, I have shown that when considered more deeply, existentialists can be considered a subculture as they share (diffused) social networks, common values and are non-conformists and therefore outside of the dominant culture. Subcultures evolve and change over time, and existentialism is no different. The existentialists’ subculture saw its heyday in the Bohemian café society of Paris in the late 1940s and has since given way to and influenced the rise of other subcultures such as the Beat Generation and more recently, the Hipsters. Like existentialism, these subcultures hold dear the values of individuality and authentic expression: the Beat Generation has given the world Bob Dylan, Allen Ginsberg and William Burroughs. The cultural legacy of existentialism can still be found in contemporary art, television, and movies and its production of works in history and time adds to its ability to be viewed as a subculture. For example, Andy and Larry Wachowski’s action movie The Matrix (1999), a film noted for his multiple references to religion, philosophy and other literary and cinematic works, shows how the main character’s realization that he is free to make his own decisions helps him transcend to become a “superman.” Even comedies such as Harold Ramis’ Groundhog Day (1993) embody a number of the pillars of existentialism, as the arrogant main character is caught in an endless time loop until he finally realizes he must improve himself to escape his mundane life. As he wakes up to the same day, every day, he goes through a series of existential crises, including isolation, despair, angst, and finally the freedom to change himself. Though we may not know it, these examples exhibit existentialism’s impact on our culture and art today.
Although subcultures in general—whether it be goths, punks, or existentialists – seem to challenge the norm solely to be defiant, I argue that they do so to follow their beliefs which diverge from the norm. And, to the existentialists, their collective “deviance” from the mainstream defines the group as a subculture and reflects their pursuit to discover for themselves the true meaning and pursuit of their lives.
Work Cited
Adorno, Theodor W. (1991) Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Culture. Place of Publication : Routledge.
“Bitterness Personified.” (1970) Juliette Greco at The Royal Festival Hall. Retrieved : Web. 13 May 2017.
Dirke, Sabine Von. (1997) “”All Power to the Imagination!”” The West German Counterculture from the Student Movement to the Greens. Lincoln: UNP – Nebraska, Print.
Ellsworth, J’Anne. (1999). Today’s adolescent: Addressing existential dread. Adolescence, 34(134), 403-408.
“Existentialism and Religion.” Philosophy Index. Retrieved : Web. 17 Apr. 2017.
Gilmore, Richard (2017) Searching for Wisdom In Movies: From the Book of Job to Sublime Conversations. Cham: Springer International, Print.
Golomb, Jacob (1995) In Search of Authenticity: From Kierkegaard to Camus. London: Routledge, Print.
Gottlieb, D. 1965 “Youth subculture: variations on a general theme.” In Muzafer and Carolyn Sherif, (eds.), Problems of Youth . Chicago . Aldine.
“Group.” Merriam-Webster. Retrieved : Web. 13 May 2017.
Hacker, D. J. (1994). An existential view of adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 14(3), 300-327
Haenfler, Ross. (2013) Subcultures: The Basics, edited by Ross Haenfler, Taylor and Francis. ProQuest Ebook Central.
Hussey, Andrew (2016) “At the Existentialist Café: Freedom, Being, and Apricot Cocktails by Sarah Bakewell – Review.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media. Retrieved : Web. 13 May 2017.
McQuaid, Cate. (2014) Globe Correspondent October. “Escher’s Majestic Illusions Come Alive at the Currier – The Boston Globe.” bostonglobe.com, Retrieved : Web. 18 Apr. 2017.
Poole, Steven (2015) “The Impossible World of MC Escher.” The Guardian.
Reynolds, Dr Jack. (2014) Understanding Existentialism. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. Print.
Sebald, Hans. (1975) International Review of Modern Sociology. Vol. 5 Issue 1, p82-89. 8p.